Author's address:
http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~aarne
History:
GFCC is a low-level format for GF grammars. Its aim is to contain the minimum that is needed to process GF grammars at runtime. This minimality has three advantages:
Thus we also want to call GFCC the portable grammar format.
The idea is that all embedded GF applications use GFCC. The GF system would be primarily used as a compiler and as a grammar development tool.
Since GFCC is implemented in BNFC, a parser of the format is readily available for C, C++, C#, Haskell, Java, and OCaml. Also an XML representation can be generated in BNFC. A reference implementation of linearization and some other functions has been written in Haskell.
GFCC is aimed to replace GFC as the run-time grammar format. GFC was designed to be a run-time format, but also to support separate compilation of grammars, i.e. to store the results of compiling individual GF modules. But this means that GFC has to contain extra information, such as type annotations, which is only needed in compilation and not at run-time. In particular, the pattern matching syntax and semantics of GFC is complex and therefore difficult to implement in new platforms.
Actually, GFC is planned to be omitted also as the target format of separate compilation, where plain GF (type annotated and partially evaluated) will be used instead. GFC provides only marginal advantages as a target format compared with GF, and it is therefore just extra weight to carry around this format.
The main differences of GFCC compared with GFC (and GF) can be summarized as follows:
Here is an example of a GF grammar, consisting of three modules, as translated to GFCC. The representations are aligned; thus they do not completely reflect the order of judgements in GFCC files, which have different orders of blocks of judgements, and alphabetical sorting.
grammar Ex(Eng,Swe); abstract Ex = { abstract { cat cat S ; NP ; VP ; NP[]; S[]; VP[]; fun fun Pred : NP -> VP -> S ; Pred=[(($ 0! 1),(($ 1! 0)!($ 0! 0)))]; She, They : NP ; She=[0,"she"]; Sleep : VP ; They=[1,"they"]; Sleep=[["sleeps","sleep"]]; } } ; concrete Eng of Ex = { concrete Eng { lincat lincat S = {s : Str} ; S=[()]; NP = {s : Str ; n : Num} ; NP=[1,()]; VP = {s : Num => Str} ; VP=[[(),()]]; param Num = Sg | Pl ; lin lin Pred np vp = { Pred=[(($ 0! 1),(($ 1! 0)!($ 0! 0)))]; s = np.s ++ vp.s ! np.n} ; She = {s = "she" ; n = Sg} ; She=[0,"she"]; They = {s = "they" ; n = Pl} ; They = [1, "they"]; Sleep = {s = table { Sleep=[["sleeps","sleep"]]; Sg => "sleeps" ; Pl => "sleep" } } ; } } ; concrete Swe of Ex = { concrete Swe { lincat lincat S = {s : Str} ; S=[()]; NP = {s : Str} ; NP=[()]; VP = {s : Str} ; VP=[()]; param Num = Sg | Pl ; lin lin Pred np vp = { Pred = [(($0!0),($1!0))]; s = np.s ++ vp.s} ; She = {s = "hon"} ; She = ["hon"]; They = {s = "de"} ; They = ["de"]; Sleep = {s = "sover"} ; Sleep = ["sover"]; } } ;
The complete BNFC grammar, from which
the rules in this section are taken, is in the file
GF/GFCC/GFCC.cf
.
A grammar has a header telling the name of the abstract syntax (often specifying an application domain), and the names of the concrete languages. The abstract syntax and the concrete syntaxes themselves follow.
Grm. Grammar ::= "grammar" CId "(" [CId] ")" ";" Abstract ";" [Concrete] ; Abs. Abstract ::= "abstract" "{" "flags" [Flag] "fun" [FunDef] "cat" [CatDef] "}" ; Cnc. Concrete ::= "concrete" CId "{" "flags" [Flag] "lin" [LinDef] "oper" [LinDef] "lincat" [LinDef] "lindef" [LinDef] "printname" [LinDef] "}" ;
This syntax organizes each module to a sequence of fields, such as flags, linearizations, operations, linearization types, etc. It is envisaged that particular applications can ignore some of the fields, typically so that earlier fields are more important than later ones.
The judgement forms have the following syntax.
Flg. Flag ::= CId "=" String ; Cat. CatDef ::= CId "[" [Hypo] "]" ; Fun. FunDef ::= CId ":" Type "=" Exp ; Lin. LinDef ::= CId "=" Term ;
For the run-time system, the reference implementation in Haskell uses a structure that gives efficient look-up:
data GFCC = GFCC { absname :: CId , cncnames :: [CId] , abstract :: Abstr , concretes :: Map CId Concr } data Abstr = Abstr { aflags :: Map CId String, -- value of a flag funs :: Map CId (Type,Exp), -- type and def of a fun cats :: Map CId [Hypo], -- context of a cat catfuns :: Map CId [CId] -- funs yielding a cat (redundant, for fast lookup) } data Concr = Concr { flags :: Map CId String, -- value of a flag lins :: Map CId Term, -- lin of a fun opers :: Map CId Term, -- oper generated by subex elim lincats :: Map CId Term, -- lin type of a cat lindefs :: Map CId Term, -- lin default of a cat printnames :: Map CId Term -- printname of a cat or a fun }
These definitions are from GF/GFCC/DataGFCC.hs
.
Identifiers (CId
) are like Ident
in GF, except that
the compiler produces constants prefixed with _
in
the common subterm elimination optimization.
token CId (('_' | letter) (letter | digit | '\'' | '_')*) ;
Types are first-order function types built from argument type
contexts and value types.
category symbols. Syntax trees (Exp
) are
rose trees with nodes consisting of a head (Atom
) and
bound variables (CId
).
DTyp. Type ::= "[" [Hypo] "]" CId [Exp] ; DTr. Exp ::= "[" "(" [CId] ")" Atom [Exp] "]" ; Hyp. Hypo ::= CId ":" Type ;
The head Atom is either a function constant, a bound variable, or a metavariable, or a string, integer, or float literal.
AC. Atom ::= CId ; AS. Atom ::= String ; AI. Atom ::= Integer ; AF. Atom ::= Double ; AM. Atom ::= "?" Integer ;
The context-free types and trees of the "old GFCC" are special cases, which can be defined as follows:
Typ. Type ::= [CId] "->" CId Typ args val = DTyp [Hyp (CId "_") arg | arg <- args] val Tr. Exp ::= "(" CId [Exp] ")" Tr fun exps = DTr [] fun exps
To store semantic (def
) definitions by cases, the following expression
form is provided, but it is only meaningful in the last field of a function
declaration in an abstract syntax:
EEq. Exp ::= "{" [Equation] "}" ; Equ. Equation ::= [Exp] "->" Exp ;
Notice that expressions are used to encode patterns. Primitive notions
(the default semantics in GF) are encoded as empty sets of equations
([]
). For a constructor (canonical form) of a category C
, we
aim to use the encoding as the application (_constr C)
.
Linearization terms (Term
) are built as follows.
Constructor names are shown to make the later code
examples readable.
R. Term ::= "[" [Term] "]" ; -- array (record/table) P. Term ::= "(" Term "!" Term ")" ; -- access to field (projection/selection) S. Term ::= "(" [Term] ")" ; -- concatenated sequence K. Term ::= Tokn ; -- token V. Term ::= "$" Integer ; -- argument (subtree) C. Term ::= Integer ; -- array index (label/parameter value) FV. Term ::= "[|" [Term] "|]" ; -- free variation TM. Term ::= "?" ; -- linearization of metavariable
Tokens are strings or (maybe obsolescent) prefix-dependent variant lists.
KS. Tokn ::= String ; KP. Tokn ::= "[" "pre" [String] "[" [Variant] "]" "]" ; Var. Variant ::= [String] "/" [String] ;
Two special forms of terms are introduced by the compiler as optimizations. They can in principle be eliminated, but their presence makes grammars much more compact. Their semantics will be explained in a later section.
F. Term ::= CId ; -- global constant W. Term ::= "(" String "+" Term ")" ; -- prefix + suffix table
There is also a deprecated form of "record parameter alias",
RP. Term ::= "(" Term "@" Term ")"; -- DEPRECATED
which will be removed when the migration to new GFCC is complete.
The code in this section is from GF/GFCC/Linearize.hs
.
The linearization algorithm is essentially the same as in GFC: a tree is linearized by evaluating its linearization term in the environment of the linearizations of the subtrees. Literal atoms are linearized in the obvious way. The function also needs to know the language (i.e. concrete syntax) in which linearization is performed.
linExp :: GFCC -> CId -> Exp -> Term linExp gfcc lang tree@(DTr _ at trees) = case at of AC fun -> comp (Prelude.map lin trees) $ look fun AS s -> R [kks (show s)] -- quoted AI i -> R [kks (show i)] AF d -> R [kks (show d)] AM -> TM where lin = linExp gfcc lang comp = compute gfcc lang look = lookLin gfcc lang
TODO: bindings must be supported.
The result of linearization is usually a record, which is realized as a string using the following algorithm.
realize :: Term -> String realize trm = case trm of R (t:_) -> realize t S ss -> unwords $ Prelude.map realize ss K (KS s) -> s K (KP s _) -> unwords s ---- prefix choice TODO W s t -> s ++ realize t FV (t:_) -> realize t TM -> "?"
Notice that realization always picks the first field of a record. If a linearization type has more than one field, the first field does not necessarily contain the desired string. Also notice that the order of record fields in GFCC is not necessarily the same as in GF source.
Evaluation follows call-by-value order, with two environments needed:
The code is presented in one-level pattern matching, to enable reimplementations in languages that do not permit deep patterns (such as Java and C++).
compute :: GFCC -> CId -> [Term] -> Term -> Term compute gfcc lang args = comp where comp trm = case trm of P r p -> proj (comp r) (comp p) W s t -> W s (comp t) R ts -> R $ Prelude.map comp ts V i -> idx args (fromInteger i) -- already computed F c -> comp $ look c -- not computed (if contains V) FV ts -> FV $ Prelude.map comp ts S ts -> S $ Prelude.filter (/= S []) $ Prelude.map comp ts _ -> trm look = lookOper gfcc lang idx xs i = xs !! i proj r p = case (r,p) of (_, FV ts) -> FV $ Prelude.map (proj r) ts (W s t, _) -> kks (s ++ getString (proj t p)) _ -> comp $ getField r (getIndex p) getString t = case t of K (KS s) -> s _ -> trace ("ERROR in grammar compiler: string from "++ show t) "ERR" getIndex t = case t of C i -> fromInteger i RP p _ -> getIndex p TM -> 0 -- default value for parameter _ -> trace ("ERROR in grammar compiler: index from " ++ show t) 0 getField t i = case t of R rs -> idx rs i RP _ r -> getField r i TM -> TM _ -> trace ("ERROR in grammar compiler: field from " ++ show t) t
The three forms introduced by the compiler may a need special explanation.
Global constants
Term ::= CId ;
are shorthands for complex terms. They are produced by the compiler by (iterated) common subexpression elimination. They are often more powerful than hand-devised code sharing in the source code. They could be computed off-line by replacing each identifier by its definition.
Prefix-suffix tables
Term ::= "(" String "+" Term ")" ;
represent tables of word forms divided to the longest common prefix and its array of suffixes. In the example grammar above, we have
Sleep = [("sleep" + ["s",""])]
which in fact is equal to the array of full forms
["sleeps", "sleep"]
The power of this construction comes from the fact that suffix sets tend to be repeated in a language, and can therefore be collected by common subexpression elimination. It is this technique that explains the used syntax rather than the more accurate
"(" String "+" [String] ")"
since we want the suffix part to be a Term
for the optimization to
take effect.
Compilation to GFCC is performed by the GF grammar compiler, and GFCC interpreters need not know what it does. For grammar writers, however, it might be interesting to know what happens to the grammars in the process.
The compilation phases are the following
coding
flag)
Two major problems had to be solved in compiling GF to GFCC:
The current implementation is still experimental and may fail to generate correct code. Any errors remaining are likely to be related to the two problems just mentioned.
The order problem is solved in slightly different ways for tables and records.
In both cases, eta expansion is used to establish a
canonical order. Tables are ordered by applying the preorder induced
by param
definitions. Records are ordered by sorting them by labels.
This means that
e.g. the s
field will in general no longer appear as the first
field, even if it does so in the GF source code. But relying on the
order of fields in a labelled record would be misplaced anyway.
The canonical form of records is further complicated by lock fields,
i.e. dummy fields of form lock_C = <>
, which are added to grammar
libraries to force intensionality of linearization types. The problem
is that the absence of a lock field only generates a warning, not
an error. Therefore a GF grammar can contain objects of the same
type with and without a lock field. This problem was solved in GFCC
generation by just removing all lock fields (defined as fields whose
type is the empty record type). This has the further advantage of
(slightly) reducing the grammar size. More importantly, it is safe
to remove lock fields, because they are never used in computation,
and because intensional types are only needed in grammars reused
as libraries, not in grammars used at runtime.
While the order problem is rather bureaucratic in nature, run-time variables are an interesting problem. They arise in the presence of complex parameter values, created by argument-taking constructors and parameter records. To give an example, consider the GF parameter type system
Number = Sg | Pl ; Person = P1 | P2 | P3 ; Agr = Ag Number Person ;
The values can be translated to integers in the expected way,
Sg = 0, Pl = 1 P1 = 0, P2 = 1, P3 = 2 Ag Sg P1 = 0, Ag Sg P2 = 1, Ag Sg P3 = 2, Ag Pl P1 = 3, Ag Pl P2 = 4, Ag Pl P3 = 5
However, an argument of Agr
can be a run-time variable, as in
Ag np.n P3
This expression must first be translated to a case expression,
case np.n of { 0 => 2 ; 1 => 5 }
which can then be translated to the GFCC term
([2,5] ! ($0 ! $1))
assuming that the variable np
is the first argument and that its
Number
field is the second in the record.
This transformation of course has to be performed recursively, since there can be several run-time variables in a parameter value:
Ag np.n np.p
A similar transformation would be possible to deal with the double role of parameter records discussed above. Thus the type
RNP = {n : Number ; p : Person}
could be uniformly translated into the set {0,1,2,3,4,5}
as Agr
above. Selections would be simple instances of indexing.
But any projection from the record should be translated into
a case expression,
rnp.n ===> case rnp of { 0 => 0 ; 1 => 0 ; 2 => 0 ; 3 => 1 ; 4 => 1 ; 5 => 1 }
To avoid the code bloat resulting from this, we have chosen to deal with records by a currying transformation:
table {n : Number ; p : Person} {... ...} ===> table Number {Sg => table Person {...} ; table Person {...}}
This is performed when GFCC is generated. Selections with records have to be treated likewise,
t ! r ===> t ! r.n ! r.p
Linearization types (lincat
) are not needed when generating with
GFCC, but they have been added to enable parser generation directly from
GFCC. The linearization type definitions are shown as a part of the
concrete syntax, by using terms to represent types. Here is the table
showing how different linearization types are encoded.
P* = max(P) -- parameter type {r1 : T1 ; ... ; rn : Tn}* = [T1*,...,Tn*] -- record (P => T)* = [T* ,...,T*] -- table, size(P) cases Str* = ()
For example, the linearization type present/CatEng.NP
is
translated as follows:
NP = { a : { -- 6 = 2*3 values n : {ParamX.Number} ; -- 2 values p : {ParamX.Person} -- 3 values } ; s : {ResEng.Case} => Str -- 3 values } __NP = [[1,2],[(),(),()]]
GFCC generation is a part of the
developers' version
of GF since September 2006. To invoke the compiler, the flag
-printer=gfcc
to the command
pm = print_multi
is used. It is wise to recompile the grammar from
source, since previously compiled libraries may not obey the canonical
order of records.
Here is an example, performed in
example/bronzeage.
i -src -path=.:prelude:resource-1.0/* -optimize=all_subs BronzeageEng.gf i -src -path=.:prelude:resource-1.0/* -optimize=all_subs BronzeageGer.gf strip pm -printer=gfcc | wf bronze.gfcc
There is also an experimental batch compiler, which does not use the GFC format or the record aliases. It can be produced by
make gfc
in GF/src
, and invoked by
gfc --make FILES
The reference interpreter written in Haskell consists of the following files:
-- source file for BNFC GFCC.cf -- labelled BNF grammar of gfcc -- files generated by BNFC AbsGFCC.hs -- abstrac syntax datatypes ErrM.hs -- error monad used internally LexGFCC.hs -- lexer of gfcc files ParGFCC.hs -- parser of gfcc files and syntax trees PrintGFCC.hs -- printer of gfcc files and syntax trees -- hand-written files DataGFCC.hs -- grammar datatype, post-parser grammar creation Linearize.hs -- linearization and evaluation Macros.hs -- utilities abstracting away from GFCC datatypes Generate.hs -- random and exhaustive generation, generate-and-test parsing API.hs -- functionalities accessible in embedded GF applications Generate.hs -- random and exhaustive generation Shell.hs -- main function - a simple command interpreter
It is included in the
developers' version
of GF, in the subdirectories GF/src/GF/GFCC
and
GF/src/GF/Devel
.
As of September 2007, default parsing in main GF uses GFCC (implemented by Krasimir Angelov). The interpreter uses the relevant modules
GF/Conversions/SimpleToFCFG.hs -- generate parser from GFCC GF/Parsing/FCFG.hs -- run the parser
To compile the interpreter, type
make gfcc
in GF/src
. To run it, type
./gfcc <GFCC-file>
The available commands are
gr <Cat> <Int>
: generate a number of random trees in category.
and show their linearizations in all languages
grt <Cat> <Int>
: generate a number of random trees in category.
and show the trees and their linearizations in all languages
gt <Cat> <Int>
: generate a number of trees in category from smallest,
and show their linearizations in all languages
gtt <Cat> <Int>
: generate a number of trees in category from smallest,
and show the trees and their linearizations in all languages
p <Lang> <Cat> <String>
: parse a string into a set of trees
lin <Tree>
: linearize tree in all languages, also showing full records
q
: terminate the system cleanly
Support for dependent types, higher-order abstract syntax, and semantic definition in GFCC generation and interpreters.
Replacing the entire GF shell by one based on GFCC.
Interpreter in Java.
Hand-written parsers for GFCC grammars to reduce code size (and efficiency?) of interpreters.
Binary format and/or file compression of GFCC output.
Syntax editor based on GFCC.
Rewriting of resource libraries in order to exploit the word-suffix sharing better (depth-one tables, as in FM).